Water Supply Scheme

           Next to Air, the other important requirement for human life to exist is water. Water is Available in Various forms such as rivers, lake, stream etc. The earliest civilization organized on the bank of major rivers system and required water for drinking, bathing, cooking etc. But with the advancement of civilization the utility of water enormously increased and now such a stage has come that without well organized public water supply scheme, it is impossible to run the present civic life and development the town. The importance of water from quality come to be recognised gradually in the later days.

Water supply scheme:- 

           It is defined as to provide the water for the present population in required quantity and quality.

Necessity of Water Supply Scheme:- 

           The following are the necessity of water supply schemes are as follows

• For drinking and cooking
• For bathing and Washing
• For watering lawns and gardens 
• For heating and air conditioning system
• For growing crops 
• For street washing
• For fire fighting
• For recreation in swimming pools, fountains etc
• For stem power and various industrial process, etc and so on.......

Advantages of water supply scheme:- 1. Drinking:-  

            The good quality of water required for drinking purpose human body contains 70% of water 5-7 liters water required for a person per day for normal conditions.

2. Cooking:-

            Some quantity of water is required for cooking about 5-6 liters/day . It depend on standard society.

3. Household sanitary purpose:-

           For this water required for washing floors, cloth etc about 50-60 liters/day required.

Population forecast :-

           The method of estimating the population for the required period is known as population forecasting.

(For more details refer IS code)

Selection sources of water supply scheme:-

The selection of the source of water-supply to a town or city depends on the following factors.

1. Location of water source :-

            The source should be near to the town or city as possible. If the surface source like river, stream or reservoir is not the vicinity of the area then underground source of water is the only alternative.

2. Quantity of water :- 

           The source of the water should have ample amount of water to meet up all the demand of the city as domestic industrial. Fire resistance, public etc. It should also be able to meet the maximum demand in dry weather.

3. Quality of water :-

           The quality of water Should be such as which can be easily and cheaply treated. Therefore, as far as possible, the water of the source should be wholesome, safe and quite free from pollution.

4. Intake point :- 

           The point should be higher than that off the supply zone so that the water can flow by gravity. Otherwise, pumping unit required for the conveyance of water from the intake point to the treatment plant which will increase the cost of the water supply scheme.

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 Planning Of Building

Planning Of Building

 Residential Building 

            Requirements for residential accommodation are different different classes of people and depends on the income and status of the individual, a highly rich family will require a luxurious building, while a poor man be satisfied with a single room house for even the poor class family. No hard and fast rule can be fixed for the design of building but for general guidance the following information may be helpful.

           For residential Building the livable area(Carpet Area) should be 50% to 65% of the plinth area with a target of 65%. The circulation Area should be minimum possible depending on the climatic condition of the region.

           A standard residential Building of bungalows type will have Drawing room, Dining room, Bed room, Office room, Guest room, kitchen, store, Pantry, Dressing room, Bath room, and W.Cs. front and rear Verandah,Stairs Etc. For other House the number of rooms may be reduced according to the requirements and money Available.

ARRANGEMENTS OF ROOMS, THEIR POSITION AND PURPOSES

Drawing room :-  

           Drawing room should be well lighted and ventilated and located in the heart of the building in the front having access from the all main rooms. For orthodox families observing purda, the drawing room may be placed in the front, having a verandah in the front and a lobby or dining room in the rear. Drawing room serves as recreation room, a study room, entertaining room for guests and visitors and a congregation room on special occasions of marriage, religious functions, etc. Floor of the drawing room should be mosaic and walls should be colour washed.

Dining Room :-

           This room should be located close to the drawing room by it's side or in the rear, and should be near to the pantry. This should be provided with a cup-board, and a wash hand basin should be fixed in one corner or side. In some cases for economy no separate dining room is prescribed with fly proof doors and windows. Floor and wall finish should be of the same type as for drawing room.

           The common walls in between the drawing room and dining room may be designed in such a way that both the rooms may be converted into hall on special occasions.

Bed room :-

           Bed room should be located on the sides of the building with at least one wall exposed to the outer space for ventilation and light. They should be placed on the sides of the prevailing wind with sufficient windows and ventilators having sun shades to protect against sun and rain. An ideal bed room receives sun's rays in the morning and free breeze in the night. If possible the bed rooms may be provided with small verandahs on the sides, so that each family member may sit in the verandah adjoining the bed room wherever they like . Bed room should be provided with attached bathroom and W.C. Ordinailly, one-third of one's time is spent at rest and sleep, the bed rooms should, therefore, be given special attention. Floor and walls should be treated with colour scheme pleasing and soothing to the eyes. In small houses due to Economic condition no separate drawing and dining room are provided, the bed rooms are used for sitting, drawing, reception, etc., Through this is not desirable.

Office Room :-

           This should be placed on the side of the front verandah, disconnected from other rooms. This is required for one's professional work or this may be used as spare room or study room.

Guest Room:-

           This room similar to office Room should be placed on the side of the front verandah, disconnected from other rooms and should have separate bath and W.C. attached to it. Office Room may be omitted if required, and the guest room may also serve as office room, as a guest may come and stay only on rare occasions. Relatives are generally accommodated inside the building as own family members.

           As far as possible each room should have direct entrance and exit from verandah or lobby.

Kitchen :- 

           Kitchen room should be placed in the rear of building in one corner opposite the direction of the prevailing wind so that smoke may not enter into other rooms of the building. It is better to have kitchen in a separate wing or block or disconnected with a lobby or verandah. Kitchen should be well ventilated and provided with shelves, fly proof doors and windows, and chimney for smoke to escape. Kitchen should also be provided with skin for washing.

Store room :- 

           This should be situated near the kitchen and meant for storing commodities as grain, flour, Dal and should be damp proof and rat proof.

Pantry :-

            This is small room and should be adjoining the dining room. This is meant for keeping cooked food, butter, jam, chutnies, etc. This should be provided with shelves, cup boards and a hot box may also be provided to keep cooked food.

Bath and W .C :-

           Bath and W.C. are usually combined in one room and attached to the bed rooms and should be well ventilated. This should be fitted with bath tub, shower, wash-hand basin, W.C., shelves, towel, racks , brackets , etc., all white glazed types. Floor should be mosaic and dado should be mosaic or white glazed tiles. 

Dressing room :-

           This should be adjacent to bath and W.C. and connected to bed rooms and should be furnished with dressing table, mirrors, brackets, etc. Dressing room is a luxury and provided only in high class building.

Verandah :- 

           There should be verandahs in the front as well as in the rear , and the  width of verandah should be 1.8m to 3.0m (6' to 10'). The front verandah servers as Sitting place for male members and waiting place for visitors. The back verandah servers as ladies appartments for their sitting , working , controlling kitchen work, etc. Verandah protect the rooms against direct sun , rain and weather effect. In a small houses the verandah may be 1.8m(6 feet) in width. The area of verandah of a building may very for 10% to 20% of the whole area of the building.

Stair Case :- 

           This should be located in a place easily accessible to all members of the family when this is intended for visitors , it should be in the front , may be on one side verandah , or placed in the rear. The staircase should be well ventilated and lighted. The minimum width of staircase should be 0.9 m (3 feet) clear of railing and may range upto 1.5m (5 feet). There should be a clear head-way of 2.1 m (7 feet) above each step and landing. The staircase should be construed in two flights having a landing in the middle to make it easy and comfortable to climb. Risers and traders should be uniform throughout to keep rythm while climbing or discerning.

           The relation between rise(R) and Tread(T) are given below :-

              R= 66/T , 

                               Or

                          R = 18 -- T , 

                              Or

                       R = ½ (24 -- T)

             Usually 15cm (6") rise and 25 cm (10") tread to 18 cm (7") rise and 28 cm (11") tread are provided. In ordinary building a maximum rise of 20 cm (8") and a minimum tread of 25 cm (10") may be provided.

For details about types Of Loads On Rcc structures click below link

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Types of load 

 ABUTMENTS :-

           Ab abutment is a structure located at the end of a Bridge. The basic functions of an abutment are:

• Supporting the bridge Deck at the ends
• Retaining the approach road embackment
• Connecting the approach road to the bridge Deck

           There are different types of abutments. The selection of a perticular form of abutment depends on the geometry of the site and the size of the bridge. The simplest form of an abutment is a wall of considerable thickness provided with bridge seating arrangement at the top. A major difference b/w a conventional retaining wall and an abutment is that, an abutment is always associate with additional walls called WING WALLS. The major types of abutments currently  in use are explained below

Gravity Abutment :-

           A gravity Abutment resists horizontal earth pressure from the rear, with its own dead weight. To be stable, this leads to massive-sized abutment. These abutment may be of mass concrete or stone masonry. A gravity Abutment is composed of a back wall and splayed wing walls, which rest on foundation. The cross-section of this type of abutment is shown in below fig.....

U-Abutment :-

           When the wing walls of gravity Abutment are placed at the right angle to the back wall, the abutment is known as U-Abutment. The name U-Abutment is due to the Shape of this Abutment in plan. The wing walls are typically cast monolithically with the abutment back wall and cantilevered both vertically and horizontally. As shown in below fig...

Stub Abutment :-

           Stub Abutment are relatively short abutments, which are placed on top of the embackment or slope. Sufficient rocky terrain must prevail at the site, so that the stub Abutment can be support on piles which extend through the embackment. This is portrayed in Fig..

Counterfort Abutment :-

           A Counterfort Abutment is a very much similar to a Counterfort retaining wall. In Counterfort Abutment, a thin wall called counterfort connect the breast wall to the footing. These Counterfort are spaced at regular intervals so that the breast wall is designed as a supported slab rather than as a cantilever. Counterfort Abutment are used when high Abutments are required. This type of Abutment is shown in fig.....

Abutment

Tunnel

Tunnel

 Tunnel :-

           A tunnel can be defined as an underground passage for the transport of  passengers, goods, Water, sewage, oil, gas, Etc. The Construction of a Tunnel normally carried out without causing much disturbance to the ground surface.

Size and Shapes of the tunnel :-

           The Shapes of tunnel linings are usually determined by their purpose, ground conditions, construction method or lining materials.

Rectangular shape:-

            Rectangular shaped tunnel are usually adopted by the cut and cover method. It is particular suitable for pedestrian and highway tunnels. On the other hand, multi-lines submerged highway tunnels are often in rectangular shape.

Elliptical shape / Egg Shape:-

               Elliptical shape tunnels are have the advantages for the transportation of sewer. The smaller cross section at the bottom maintains the flow at the required self cleaning velocity. However , due to the difficulty in construction, circular shape once are more common. 

Circular shape :-

              A circular shape tunnel has the greatest cross-section area to perimeter ratio. They are often associated with TBM or the shield tunnelling methods. 

Horseshoe / segmental shape :-

           They are commonly used for rock tunnelling. It has the advantages of utilising the compressive strength of concrete in resisting the loading by means of arch action and the base is wide enough for traffic.

Rails

 Rail :-

            The Rails on the track can be considered as steel Girder For the purpose of Carrying axle Loads. They Are made of High Carbon Steel to withstand Wear & Tear. Normally Flat Footed Rails  (FF) are mostly Used in Railway track specially In Indian Railways.

             Standard Rails Used By Indian Railway As shown in below picture.

Functions of  Rails :- 

• Rails provide a hard ,smooth & unchanging surface for passage of heavy  moving loads with a minimum friction between the steel rails and steel wheels.
• Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, lateral and braking forces and thermal stresses.
• Rails transmit the loads to sleepers and consequently reduce pressure on ballast and  formation below.     

Types of  Rails :-

• Double Headed Rails (DH)
• Bull Headed Rails (BH)
• Flat Footed Rails (FF)

 Double Headed Rail :-

              Uppar head and the lower head of the Rails have Same  dimensions or upper table and lower table have same width is known as Double Headed Rails (DH).

              

Generally  we use ;

• Total depth/height of the Rail = 152.5mm
• Width of both heads = 70mm
• Depth/height Of the both heads =44.5mm
• Depth/height of the web = 63.5mm
• Width of the web = 19mm

Bull Headed Rails :-

          It name as indicates its lookes like bull head in one side. Because of the one head of rail is larger than another head.

          Generally we use:-

• Width of head =68.7mm
• Depth/height head  =46mm
• Width of Foot =63.5mm
• Depth/height of foot=33mm
• Total depth/height of rail =144.9mm
• Depth /height of web = 65.9mm
• Width of the web = 16.7mm

Flat Footed Rails (FF) :-

              This type of Rails generally used in modern Rail way tracks, it is very Economical.

               This type of Rails have flat in below side and  traffic moving on upper side , or Have Flat type of Footing As shown in below picture.

Generally we use ;

• Upper side width =66.7mm
• Depth/height of the upper side =43.7mm
• Total depth/height of the Rail = 142.9mm
• Hight/depth of web =78.6mm
• Width of the web =13.89mm
• Width of flat foot =136.5mm
• Depth/height of the flat foot =20mm

 Normally in India the flat Footed Rails generally used.....

Contract in Civil engineering and Standards Construction Contract

 CONTRACT :- 

            When two or more persons have common intention communicated to each other to creat some obligation between them there is said to be an agreement. 

An agreement which is enfoerceable by law is a "Contract".  

            In civil engineering construction contract is an undertaking by a person or firm to do any work under certain terms and codicondit. The work may be for the construction or maintenance and repair, for supply of materials or labour, etc.

Contractor :- 

           The contractor means a person or firm to do any type of contract.

Types of Contract :-

•        Piece work contract
•       Item rate or unit price contract
•       Lump sum contract
•       Cost plus percentage contract
•       Combination of lump sum and        schedule of rates contract
•        Labour contract

  Piece work contract :-

            It is an agreement by which the worker agrees to execute the different items of work on mutually agreed rates. The agreement contains different items of work to be carried out with proper description and rates for unit quantity of work.

 Lump sum contract :- 

            In this contract the contractor agrees to execute within a specified time. The plan, drawings and specifications of all items of the work are provided to the contractor but the details of quantities and schedule of items will not be given and contractor will have to complete the work as per plan and specification within the contract period.

  Item rate or unit price contract:- 

             In this contract the contractor under takes the execution of work at the unit rates agreed at the time of tender. The payment is made to the contractor by detail measurements of the work actually executed by the contractor. This method of contact is used in most of the work in projects, maintenance of buildings, irrigation projects, etc.

 Cost plus percentage contract :-

               In this contract the contractor is paid the actual cost of the building plus a fixed percentage for his overhead expenses, services and profit. The contractor procure the materials and arranges the labours at his own cost keeping the proper account and he is paid by the department or owner the whole cost together with certain percentage, normally 10% as his profit.

  Labour contract :-

                   In this contract the contractor under takes only the labour portion of the work. All the necessarily materials are supplied to the site by the department or owner and contractor arranges his own labours and get the work done as per the specifications.

                    The contractor is paid for the labours only on the actual quantities of the work done measured under the item rate basis.

.civil Engineering

Types Of Loads On R.C.C Structures

Types Of Loads On R.C.C Structures :-   

      

           Structures are designed to withstand various type of loads. The various type of loads expected on a structure are as follows:

• Dead Load :- 

          

Dead, live and wind loads

             The unit weights of commonly used building materials are given in the code IS 875 (part-1)-1987

• Live Loads :- 

               Live loads on floors and roofs consists of all the loads which are temporarily placed on the structure, for example, loads of people, furniture, machines, etc. These loads keep on changing from time to time. They are also called as imposed loads. Various types of imposed loads coming on the structure are given in IS 875 (Part-2): 1987. The imposed loads depend upon the use of building.

• Wind Loads :-

            The force exerted by the horizontal components of wind is to be considered in the design of building. It depends upon the velocity of wind, shape and size of the building. The method of calculating wind load on structure is given in IS : 875 (Part-3) 1987. It is also called as Lateral Loads.

• Snow Loads :-

             The building which are located in  the regions where snowfall is very common, are to be designed for snow load. The code IS : 875 (part-4) 1987 deals with snow load on roofs of the building.

• Earthquake Loads :- 

           Earthquake loads depend upon the place where the building is located. As per IS : 1893-2002 (Part-1), India is divided into four seismic zones. The code gives recommendations for design of structures. It is also called as Lateral Loads.